[Abstract] In human communication, people use body language to communicate, as well as verbal language. Body language is also called Kinesics. It belongs to the scope of nonverbal communication. Body language plays an important role in complementing, accenting, symbolizing or substituting utterance meaning. Body language, like verbal language, is also a part of culture. But in different cultures body language means the different things. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. Understanding the different cultural implication of English and Chinese body language can promote people’s cross-cultural communication competence, reinforce the heart-to-heart understanding and in the end will benefit the communication between English and Chinese people. This paper mainly expounds the features and functions of body language in pragmatics, presents the meanings of body language in different cultures from the point of cultures, researches body language’s cultural differences between English and Chinese, especially those in gesture, posture, facial expression, eye contact and physical distance, and discusses the importance of knowing cultural meanings. The research of English and Chinese body language in nonverbal communication is helpful for people to diminish or avoid misunderstandings caused by the cultural differences of body language.
[Key Words] body language; English-speaking countries; China; contrast
英汉身势语的对比研究
[ 摘 要 ] 人们在进行交流的过程中，除了运用语言这种普遍的方式外，也经常运用身势语。身势语又称体态语，是人类交际中最常见的一种非语言交际手段。身势语对话语意义起着补充，强调，表情，象征或替代作用。身势语同语言一样，都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中，身势语的意义并不完全相同。各个民族有不同的非语言交际方式。了解英汉身势语的不同文化内涵，有助于英汉国家的人民之间更好地交流，提高跨文化交际能力，增进感情与心态的理解，做到“入乡随俗”，传情达意。本文重点论述了身势语的语用特征，功能，并从文化角度对身势语在不同的文化背景中的含义作了介绍，探讨了中国和英语国家在手势，姿态，面部表情，眼神与体距等方面的文化差异，论述了了解文化含义在非语言交际中的重要性。对跨文化交际中的英汉体态语进行探讨，有助于人们减少或避免在跨文化交际中因体态语的文化差异而引起的误解。
[ 关键词 ] 身势语；英语国家；中国；对比
1.Introduction
Human communication consists of verbal communication and nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication plays a very important role in the whole communication. Some experts say more than 60 percent of communication comes from nonverbal behaviors, such as facial expression, posture and so on. These nonverbal behaviors always have many meanings. One expert estimated that verbal communication occupied about 30 percent of the whole communication behaviors. “American linguist Samovar affirms that in a face-to-face communication, only about 35 percent of messages are sent by verbal behaviors and others are sent by nonverbal behaviors.” [1] Verbal and nonverbal behaviors, which are both the important parts of human communication, can express feeling, interact ideas and send messages. They are the indispensable tools that can satisfy human communication.
Body language is also called Kinesics, including eye contact, gestures, posture, facial expressions, and physical distance. As an important way of nonverbal communication, gestures are the silent and authentic language that can express people’s inner emotions. They are a part of a national culture. In order to understand a culture well and make the communication more effective, it is necessary to discuss the pragmatic features and functions of body language.
2. Pragmatic features of body language.
2.1Emblems
Emblems substitute for words. “Emblems are gestures that have a specific meaning that is same for both the sender and the receiver of a particular nonverbal message.” [2] For example, the nonverbal signs for “OK,” “Victory,” “come here,” “be quiet,” and “it’s cold.”
2.2Illustrators
Illustrators help to complement or depict spoken words. “They make your communications more vivid and help to maintain your listener’s attention. They also help to clarify and make more intense your verbal messages”[3] “by punctuating and displaying the structure of our verbal messages, by emphasizing certain phrases, by signaling continued interaction, and by providing information in addition to the words that we use.” [4]
2.3Regulators
Regulators are body movements that aid in the actual flow of conversation. They monitor, maintain, control the speaking of another individual. Regulators tell others when people’s conversational turns will be yielded or maintained. At the same time, they also allow people to deny or request a speaking turn within conversations
2.4Affect displays
Affect displays are the movements of the face that convey emotional meaning. “Affect displays may be unintentional (as when they give you away) or intentional (as when you want to show anger, love or surprise).” [5]
2.5Adaptors
Ekman and Friesen classify three types of adaptors based on their focus, direction, or target: self-adaptors, alter-directed adaptors, and object-adaptors.
(i)Self-adaptors
Self-adaptors are generally not directed at others but serve some personal need. They usually satisfy a physical need, especially to make people more comfortable, for example, biting lip when anxious, pushing hair out of eyes, scratching head to relieve an itch or moistening lips when they are dry. In general, the more nervous one feel, the more and clearer such behaviors are.
(ii) Alter-directed adaptors
Alter-directed adaptors are body motions directed at others and they are learned from past experiences and from the manipulation of objects. “They include gestures used to protect oneself from others, such as putting the hands in front of the face; movements made to attack others, such as assuming a fighting position……”[6]
(iii) Object-adaptors
Object-adaptors are those that involve the use of an object, for example, chewing on a pencil or clicking a ballpoint pen. Most object-adaptors are unconscious. They would be elicited from verbal behaviors in certain context.
3.Pragmatic functions of body language
Body language has its own unique pragmatic functions in human interaction. It falls into five types of functions: complement, substitution, emotional expression, accentuation and symbolization.
3.1Complement
Body language can be used to complete, describe, or accent verbal cues. Body language adds some information to the verbal message. For example, when talking about the big house one bought, he/she indicates how big it is with his/her hands.
3.2Substitution
Using body language in place of verbal messages is known as substitution. Body language can replace verbal behaviors to convey certain meaning. People often nod their head to express “yes” without saying the word.
3.3Emotional expression
The most obvious function of body language is to express emotions. When people are communicating, they can express their feelings through various signs or behaviors. When they are conversing, they will make various facial expressions and gestures without self-consciousness, which often leak their affects or thoughts.
3.4Accentuation
The accompanying body language very often can add force to the verbal messages. A forceful gesture, exaggerated facial expressions all give “accent” to the intended messages. Body language also can be used alone to express certain meaning.
3.5Symbolization
Symbolizing gestures are usually common formalities. They are conventional ones. Since they are restrained by certain traditional culture and belong to some nation, they can only be used in some specific culture.
Above are the pragmatic functions of body language. But they only have definite meanings in certain context.
4.A comparative study of body language between Chinese and English-speaking
countries
Because the cultures of different nations are rooted. Further, it’s not easy for people to absorb the signs which are contrary to their habits. So, they can’t ignore the influence exerted on body language by cultures and they must pay attention to the different meanings of body language in different cultures and contexts.
Body language is an important part of nonverbal communication. If people don’t understand its cultural connotation, they will not interact properly. Sometimes they will make themselves or others embarrassed.
A well-known case is a gesture made by Winston Churchill, the doughty prime minister who led Britain through the Second World War. As he appeared before a large crowd, he was greeted with cheers and applause. The occasion was a momentous one and Churchill flashed the “V” for “Victory” sign—with the forefinger and middle finger raised to form a “V”, whether by mistake or ignorance, instead of facing the palm of his hand to the front, he made the “V” with the back of his hand towards the audience. Some in the crowd applauded; some gasped; some broke out in laughter. The prime minister’s gesture, as given, meant quite something else. Instead of “V” for “Victory”, it meant something dirty; it was an obscene gesture. [7]
From this example, people can see that body language plays an important role in communication. Since body language can express certain meaning and it is conventional, it can become the effective way of interaction. People who live in the same culture believe that some gesture indicates some meaning. However, different countries have different cultures, so the comprehension of body language will not be the same in different countries. If people don’t realize this, it will affect their communication and cause misunderstanding. In English study, the comparative study of body language between Chinese and English-speaking countries is very important for them to master and understand the diversity of cross-cultural communication.
4.1Contrastive study of gestures
Gesture is the expressive movement of a part of body, especially the hand and the head. Although people are normally not aware of it, they use gestures when they are talking. If they want to understand gestures correctly, they must take the context or situation into consideration, otherwise gestures can be confusing indeed. For instance, a thumb in the air might mean a request for a ride on the highway or “ok” on the launch pad. To touch the nose can indicate “dishonesty” in conversation or “failure” in contexts such as a game of chess. As with verbal language, nonverbal codes are not universal. A lot of gestures vary from culture to culture. Here are some examples:
Since the cultures in different countries are different, the same gesture would have different meanings in different countries. Please look at the table1:
Table1
Gestures Meanings
Chinese English-speaking countries
Raising forefinger and middle finger to form a “V” The figure of two Victory
Making a circle with thumb and index finger while extending others The figure of zero or three Ok
Hand raised to throat, fingers extended, palm down Suicide I’m very full.
Moving the index finger in a circle in front of the ear Think aboutThink of That’s crazy!He/she is crazy!
Thumb up High praise, good A request for ride on the highway
Index finger touches the temple or the forehead He/she is very foolish.There is something wrong with his/her mind. He/she is very clever/intelligent.
Hand extended toward person, palm open and down, with all fingers crooked in a beckoning motion Come here Goodbye
Hand extended toward person, closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving back and forth Offensive Come here
Forefinger near lips with the sound “shhh” Disapproval, hissing Be silent/quiet
Snap Rude, uneducated Quick, brisk and sharp
A speaker or performer clapping at the same time audience applauds Appreciation, mutual positive feeling Immodest, applauding oneself
Touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger It’s me.I’m the one. Slightly funny
Though the same gesture would have different meanings in different countries, the different gestures would also have the same meaning. Please look at the table2:
Table2
Meanings Gestures
Chinese English-speaking countries
Bad Raising little finger Thumb down
“ I don’t know” Shaking the head or waving the hand Shrugging the shoulders
“ Come here” Hand extended toward person, palm open and down, with all fingers crooked in a beckoning motion Hand extended toward person, closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving back and forth
“ Shame on you!” (semi-joking gesture) Forefinger of one hand extended, tip touches one’s face several times quickly, similar to scratching, but with the forefinger straight Forefinger of each hand extended, palms down in front of one’s body, one forefinger makes several brushing movements over the back of the other forefinger
Punish oneself Giving oneself boxes on the face Giving oneself boxes on the ear
Welcome, congratulation Applauding and clapping hands Applauding and snapping one’s fingers
“ I’m very full” after a meal One or both hands open, lightly patting one’s own stomach Hand raised to throat, fingers extended, palm down
High praise, the best Thumb up Closed hand, forefinger up
“ No, don’t do that” Moving the head from side to side Moving the index finger from side to side
“ That’s crazy!”“He/she is crazy!” Moving the index finger from side to side Moving the index finger in a circle in front of the ear
There are also many gestures only existing in one culture without equivalent in other cultures.
For example, the American “No, don’t do that” gesture, moving the index finger from side to side with forefinger up and others closed is not used in China. To express doubt, helplessness or baffle, people who live in English-speaking countries often shrug their shoulders. However, this gesture is seldom used in China. In English culture, the gesture, thumb against the tip of the nose, other four fingers wave from side to side together, indicates challenge and defiance; putting middle finger on the back of forefinger indicates “bless success”, which has a relevant phrase—cross one’s fingers. And people are very familiar with another phrase, that is “thumb a ride” (standing on the side of the rode, closing hand with thumb up) which means a request for ride. Now, as the Western media cultures such as Western films penetrate into China, such kinds of gestures have been used by more and more Chinese young people. There are also many gestures only existing in China. In Chinese culture, to express respect, people must take something that can be hold with one hand to their guests or others with two hands. And when others pour tea or wine for them, they must hold the cup with both hands to express “Thank you” or tap the tabletop with forefinger to indicate “It’s enough ” . Touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger means “It’s me.” “I’m the one.” Upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touches, means a good match. These gestures are unique to China.
From above examples, people can come to a conclusion, that is, if they want to learn a language well, they must not only learn the verbal language, but also study the gestures of that country.
4.2Contrastive study of posture
Posture refers to the general way people carry their body, especially the back, shoulders and head while standing, lying, etc. It offers insight into a culture’s deep structure and often reflects a person’s attitude toward people he/she is with. For example, Chinese culture believes that people who are seated are more authoritative: emperors sat, while liege subjects stood; fathers sit, whereas sons stand; superiors sit, while inferiors stand and so on. So, to show respect, juniors often let seniors sit on their own seats. However, the situation in America is opposite to that in China. In America, “tallness usually equates with dominance. Standing up tall can help you appear more authoritative, whereas a slumped posture or slouched shoulders create an appearance of submissive or passive demeanor.”[8] And since the spatial height connotates the height of status, American individuals of higher status tend to stand. But if American individuals of higher status choose the sitting posture, that indicates they hope to create an equal atmosphere and to shorten the distance between each other, just like the moment when adults are conversing with children they would crouch.
“ In the United States, where being casual and friendly is valued, people often fall into chairs or slouch when they stand; and it is also common to see an American woman sit with her legs crossed even during public meeting.”[9] Whereas in China, the lifestyle tends to be more formal, such posture are offensive and are often considered signs of rudeness or poor manners.
Traditionally, Chinese teachers, rated as Confucian scholars, are the souls of belief, knowledge and authority. Their image of power certainly ought not to be damaged by the unserious posture. That is why some Chinese students often complain that their American teacher is so informal in class that he never seems to care about students’ reaction, which also indicates that they could not accept the fact that their English teachers who are native Chinese behave or more exaggerating as foreign teachers. On the contrary, sitting on the edge of desk to give a lecture or even putting his feet on chairs in class is welcomed in many English countries. Consequently, in American eyes, Chinese teachers appear to be timid and sluggish or too boring in classroom. Gao Yihong (2000:97) remarked: “In American culture, teachers’ responsibility is to help students realize selves. Teachers are students’ facilitators. Teachers’ image of power in America is far weaker than that in China.”[10]
This difference mainly results from the discrepancies of body language between these two cultures.
These differences either obvious or subtle often lead to improper communication, even lead to complete disconnection of communication.
4.3Contrastive study of facial expression
Facial expression is the most expressive part of the body. It’s capable of conveying emotions. Different cultures have many different or same facial expressions. Laughing means happiness and crying indicates sadness. Since the expression of emotions is acquired in the background of cultures, facial expression varies among cultures. Smacking means delicious in China, while it means “have no savor” in English-speaking countries. Lolling out tongue indicates shyness for Han race and politeness to strange heterosexual guests for Tibetan, whereas it indicates contempt, jeer or resistance for American children. Because the traditional cultures and the affects toward certain thing are not the same, facial expressions would be different. For example, when Chinese are praised by others, they would take on negative facial expression, indicating “I don’t believe.” “I can’t accept.” When English are praised, they would say, “Thank you!” with a smile. Chinese would consider this attitude as immodesty and pride. All of these as determined by the features of cultures.
Smiles and laughter are the common character of human. They usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. But their meanings also vary from culture to culture. In cross-cultural communication, there are many misunderstandings caused by smile. English people usually can’t understand Chinese facial expressions and smiles. Some even call Chinese smile as inscrutable. There are two reasons.
(i)Chinese smile often isn’t accordant with context
For instance, when an American is parking his bicycle, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. Such laughter, of course is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he be a foreigner or a Chinese. It can convey a number of meanings; don’t take it so seriously; or laugh it of, or it is nothing; or such things can happen to anyone, etc. [11]
But in America, onlookers should reflect such context with clear sympathetic feelings.
(ii) English people think Chinese feelings are too implicit and are not often taken on face
Even there is some disaster happening to them, Chinese people would also smile at guests. But if something unfortunate happens to English people, they would not conceal their sad feeling intentionally. There are more facial expressions and gestures in English-speaking countries, especially in America. American adults always encourage their children to show themselves and to form extroverted character, which would elicit more facial expressions. But Chinese adults often warn their children not to display their emotions, so most of their children own an introverted and implicit character.
4.4Contrastive study of eye contact
English dramatist “Shakespeare said, ‘There is language in her eye, her cheek, her lip.’ The Chinese saying goes, ‘The eye is the window of the soul.’”[12] From these two sentences, people can see that eye contact is quite important in their interaction.
In the aspect of eye contact, there are also many differences between Chinese and English-speaking countries, which is mainly indicated on “the etiquette of eye contact”. Take Chinese and American cultures for an example: In two–person conversations, Americans require the person who they are interacting with to look at them in the eye during a conversation. They see eye contact as a sign of honesty and a lack of eye contact or shifty eyes as a sign of untruthfulness, contempt, fear, indifference, guilt or absence of mind. And people in America are told “not to trust anyone who won’t look you in the eye”. Americans have been used to direct eye contact. They think direct eye contact is the indication of confidence and politeness, and shifty eye contact implies impoliteness. But Chinese would avoid long direct eye contact during the conversation to show respect, or obedience, or politeness. Especially, in the context where juniors or subordinates are conversing with seniors or superiors. At this time, the most common posture of juniors and inferiors is a slump one or slouched shoulders.
The differences of “the etiquette of eye contact” also appear in conversation with a group of people. Americans tend to make eye contact with the listeners.
The speaker looks at the listeners to see whether they are interested in what he/she is saying and then decides to go on or make a change. The listeners show that they are listening by looking at the speaker. At the same time they may nod their heads or make sounds like “Hmm”, “Ummm” to indicate their agreement and slant their heads to one side, raise eyebrows or have a quizzical look to signal their disagreement or reservations. In contrast with this, Chinese speakers always bury their noses in their manuscripts to read a speech instead of looking at and talking to their audience. This habit would be regarded as inconsiderate and impolite by Americans. Accordingly, it is not surprising to see Chinese listeners simply listen to the speaker just with their ears, paying no attention to the speaker at all. [13]
But it is very interesting that in early Reforming and Opening period, people often looked at strange foreigners for a long time. This is due to the fact that Chinese people had little chance of meeting foreigners or famous people in the past. People stared at them just to be curious, not to be rude. Actually, it’s also a taboo of communication.
In public, when Chinese people come across an odd/favorable person, they would look at him/her directly. They think such behavior is natural and can be understood. However, Americans hate staring at others or being stared by others. In English-speaking countries, staring at another is considered an invasion of privacy, and it often makes people embarrassed and repulsive.
Many Americans in China can’t bear the moments when they are stared by Chinese. Some even consider Chinese impolite and rude. The story is told of an American young woman who decided to return to her motherland because of often being stared by others. Although she very liked China and Chinese people, and liked teaching in Beijing, she couldn’t stand being stared. Although she was very tall and often made people feel curious, that couldn’t become the reason of such impolite behavior. Although she was reluctant to leave China, she also determined to leave for her homeland earlier than planned. Actually, Chinese stared at the American young woman just for curiosity or surprise. But English people consider such behavior impolite, embarrassed and uneasy. In English-speaking countries, if people pass a stranger in the street and they want to measure him/her with the eye, they can look at him/her, then he/she will look forward immediately to let them size up. And when he/she looks them back, they must also avoid staring and let him/her look you up and down. In the offices, trains, libraries or home, the situations in China and Western countries are the same. But in the streets, waiting rooms or buses, the situations are different. In these places, Chinese prefer to stare at strangers, which often make others lose their heads.
So, when one communicates with westerners, he/she must avoid staring at them, and yet he/she must also avoid ignoring them. He/she looks at them long enough to make it quite clear that he/she sees them, and then he/she immediately looks away.
4.5Contrastive study of physical distance
Physical contact is a spatial behavior. It has many differences between China and America. Anthropologist Edward Hall had identified four distance zones used by middle-class Americans:
(i)Intimate zone
It ranges from zero to about 45centimeters. In this zone, two intimate persons can touch each other. For example, a couple, two lovers or two members of a family can kiss and hug.
(ii)Casual-personal zone
It ranges from 45centimeters to 80centimeters. It is the distance that friends, acquaintances or relatives should keep. They should avoid touching the body.
(iii)Social-consultative zone
It ranges from 1.30meters to 3meters. In this zone, the communicators know, but not familiar with each other.
(iv)Public zone
The distance is 3meters and beyond. It’s the distance that speakers and listeners should keep when they are making speeches in public places, in Cathedrals or in auditoriums.
While in China, the concept of physical contact is unclearer than that in America. In general, the speakers and listeners often keep more than 46 centimeters. However, in the conversation about business, they often keep about 60 centimeters. And in China, it’s common to see two same-sex persons walk arm-in-arm or hold hands.
Kissing and hugging are two kinds of physical contact. They are not very common among Chinese people. However, it’s a different matter for adults to kiss or hug their beloved children. In China, couples rarely kiss or hug each other in the face of another. But Americans usually kiss or hug their intimate friends or members of families. Although in intimate zone the frequency of physical contact among Chinese is less than that among Americans, in other three zones, the situation is just the reverse. For example, Chinese would think it’s very normal for two male friends or female friends to hold hands or walk arm-in-arm. And when two close classmates, colleagues or friends meet after a period of absence, if they are female, they would hold hand and greet each other affectionately; if they are male, they would shake hands and pat on shoulders as well as greet. In addition, Chinese have been accustomed to short time and slight touch. But Americans avoid physical contact in conversations among acquaintances except shaking hands. When Americans reach their teenage, they hardly hold hands or walk arm-in-arm. Because this behavior indicates homosexuality and it has become a taboo for Americans. Even in the crowd elevator, physical contact is also not allowed. If one touches another person accidentally, he/she usually utters an apology such as “Sorry”, “Excuse me”, “Oh, I’m very sorry”. If he/she doesn’t say sorry, such touch may cause an unpleasant reaction. So Americans always try to avoid physical contact in public places. According to Anthropologist Edward Hall’s observation, Americans always keep certain distance to avoid touching strangers when they queuing. If someone stands too close to them, they would drop back; if they can’t drop back, they would lean sideward and tighten muscle; if the “invader” can’t react to these physical signs and continue to approach them, they would use briefcases or umbrellas as shields to “protect” themselves. Because of such contrast, Americans can’t stand physical contact in public places in China. An American female teacher thinks Chinese people are rude, boldfaced and unceremonious in public places, but polite in private places. In deed, she doesn’t know the different attitudes Chinese and Americans toward physical contact.
A common complaint of western mothers is that Chinese often fondle their babies or very small children. Such behavior—whether touching, patting, hugging or kissing—can be quite embarrassing and awkward for the mothers. They know that no harm is meant, and that such gestures are merely signs of friendliness or affection, therefore they cannot openly show their displeasure. On the other hand, such actions in their own culture would be considered rude, intrusive and offensive and could arouse a strong dislike and even repugnance. So the mothers often stand by and watch in awkward silence, with mixed emotions, even when the fondling is by Chinese friends or acquaintances. [14]
For another example, when Chinese women praise a female friend’s dress or hairstyle, they would like touch her clothes or hair to indicate their enjoying feeling. In contrast with it, Americans often avoid such touching behavior among them except among intimate persons.
4.Conclusion
Body language bears relations with cultures. It is also the carrier of cultures, like verbal language. Body language varies from culture to culture. So, the aim of studying and researching nonverbal communication is to help foreign language learners and communicators exclude the interference of cultural differences. So people should focus on cultural differences and cultural clashes.
In cross-cultural communication, people must realize the relationship between nonverbal communication and cultures. And body language is the silent and authentic language that can express one’s inner emotions. It is the most distinctive kind of interaction in nonverbal communication. So body language is dependent on cultures.
Moreover, body language has international character. People who live in different countries and speak different languages can communicate through body language. Sometimes body language can be used alone, but sometimes it must be used together with verbal language. If one can’t use body language properly, he can’t achieve communicative purpose well. And he will make another one unhappy or make himself embarrassed. Nevertheless, if one can use body language aptly, he can achieve communicative purpose well. So it’s very important for foreign language learners to know the sense of body language, to learn the cultures of English-speaking countries, and to eliminate native cultural interference, to diminish cultural clash. Body language is an important media in human interaction. “The specialist on body language research—Fen.Lafle.Angles, once said: ‘Once it was lost, a baby couldn’t have grown into a normal person’.” [15]
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