Abstract: Language transfer is a common phenomenon in the language learning. Language transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired. This paper lists manifestations of language transfer and puts emphasis on making a contrastive study of the different characters between Chinese and English while analyzing the various mistakes in Chinese students’ English writing caused by the negative transfer from Chinese on the levels of lexis, syntax and discourse. The purpose is to minimize the negative influence from Chinese and improve students’ English writing.
Key words: negative transfer from Chinese, English writing, influence
1.Introduction
Transfer is a psychological term, which refers to the influence of previous learning on subsequent learning. Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. (Odlin, 1989) Language transfer is a common phenomenon in the language learning. Language transfer is the effect of one language on the learning of another. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, 2000) In the process of the foreign language learning, learners will unconsciously bring the pronunciation, lexical, grammatical structures, and thoughts of the mother tongue into the target language. As a result, the mother tongue has some influence on the target language. This phenomenon is called language transfer. Language transfer includes positive transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer refers to the transfer in which language learners’ knowledge of the mother tongue improves the acquisition of the new knowledge of the target language. Negative transfer, also called interference, is the phenomenon in which language learners use the models or rules of their mother tongue in the target language, resulting in the output of the informal or even wrong expressing forms of the target language.
In the English language learning, Chinese students try to utilize some mother tongue features more than that of the English language in communication. English writing is one of the output ways of language, and it is a process from deep structures to surface structures. From what to write to the output composition, it may take students quite a lot of steps to finish the writing tasks, that is, from their thoughts to words, sentences, passages and contexts. In this process, students may make a lot of mistakes caused by the negative transfer from their native language---Chinese.
2. The reassessment of the significance of language transfer and the manifestations
2.1 The reassessment of the significance of language transfer
In the 1950s, language transfer was deemed the most important factor to consider in the theories of second language learning as well as in approaches to second language teaching.
In the 1960s, its importance wanted as learners’ errors were seen not as evidence of language transfer but rather of “ the creative construction process ”. Some researches virtually deny the existence of language transfer in their enthusiasm for universalist explanations. Contrastive Analyse Hypothesis (CAH), which was once an influential hypothesis concerning with the study of language transfer, was fiercely challenged by the emerging of error analyses. Some empirical evidence showed that learning difficulties do not always arise from cross-linguistic differences and those difficulties, which do arise, are not always predicted by contrastive analyses.
In recent years, the role of transfer is acknowledged and transfer is seen to interact with a host of other factors in ways not yet fully understood. “It’s for the researchers to work towards a fuller theoretical understanding of how and when learners draw on their L1.” (Ellis, 1994) An important theory dominating the study of L2 learning now is the cognitive theory. It views the process of learning a language as “skill learning” engaging in perception, memory, problem solving, information processing, etc. In the view of cognitive theory, transfer is not “interference” but a cognitive process. The cognitive theory, which views L1 transfer as one of but not exclusive factors interfere with the L2 acquisition, has replaced CAH accounting for L2 acquisition. Selinker put “language transfer” at the top of his list of the five cognitive processes responsible for fossilization, interacting with other factors. Thus language transfer is now viewed as a resource, which the learner actively draws in interlanguage development.
But some behaviorists such as Lado, Fries, held the idea that native language influence could greatly affected second language acquisition. According to Lado, elements in target language that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. (Lado, 1957 see Odlin, 1989) But in recent studies, researchers find that some errors occur are not due to native language influence but from other source such as transfer of training.
2.2 The manifestations of language transfer
Researchers find that the result of language transfer is not only manifested by errors (negative transfer) and facilitation (positive transfer), but also by avoidance and over-use (over-indulgence), etc.
2.2.1 Errors (negative transfer)
“Negative transfer occurs when the previous performance disrupts the performance on a second task. It can also be referred to as interference.” (Brown, 1994) Errors can be divided into three types: interlingual errors, intralingual errors, and other types of errors. Interlingual errors refer to the influence of the native language and culture on the target language, usually called language transfer. Intralingual errors are those errors caused by learners’ misunderstanding of the rules of the target language. Other types of errors include errors occur due to nonstructural factors.
2.2.2 Facilitation (positive transfer)
L1 can also facilitate L2 learning in aspects that the two languages are similar with each other. Facilitation of native language does not mean that learners do not make mistakes where the native language and the target language are identical. “Facilitation is evident not so much in the total absence of certain error----as would be expected on the basis of behaviorist notions of positive transfer----but rather in a reduced number of errors, also, in the rate of learning.” (Ellis, 1994)
“Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task----that is, when a previous item is correctly applied to present subject matter.” (Brown, 1994)
In the English classroom, the teacher should take full advantages of the similarities between English and Chinese and foster students awareness of positive factors to facilitate their understanding and learning of the English language.
2.2.3 Avoidance
Avoidance refers to learners’ “avoidance of using linguistic structures which they find difficult because of differences between their native language and the target language.” (Ellis, 1994) For example, Chinese English learners always avoid the use of complex sentences in both oral and written situations, for they feel it hard to apply for it or liable to make mistakes in using it. But in the English teaching and learning, sometimes we find it is hard for students and teachers to locate the problem and solve it. We should pay enough attention to avoidance.
2.2.4 Over-use (over-indulgence)
Learners prefer to use linguistic and discourse features that seem simple to them, which is called “over-use” in transfer. It may be as a consequence of the avoidance of some difficult structures or a result of intralingual processes such as over-generalization.
It can also result from transfer----often as a consequence of the avoidance or underproduction of some “difficult” structure.
3. Influence on English writing from the negative transfer of Chinese
Researches show that language transfer occurs in all aspects of language of phonology, lexis, syntax, and pragmatics etc. “Chinese English learners may have a lot of mistakes in their English language learning, 51% of which are caused by the negative transfer from Chinese.” (Su Dingfang, 1996) During my English teaching in the senior middle school, I’ve collected large quantities of mistakes in the students’ English writing. And I’ve found that the more differences exist between Chinese and English, the more mistakes students may make. It is likely to make use of the findings in L2 teaching to facilitate L2 learning and to minimize the negative effects. In this paper, I’d like to make a contrastive study of the different characters between Chinese and English while analyzing the various mistakes in Chinese students’ English writing caused by the negative transfer from Chinese on the levels of lexis, syntax and discourse.
3.1 Lexis level
Each language has its own special rules of word combination and sentence making. Chinese and English belong to two different language systems. Of course, they have different language rules. Chinese is analytic language in which word forms do not change and word order and the use of function words show grammatical functions. English is synthetic language, that is a language in which affixes may be added to the stems of a word to add its meaning or to show its grammatical functions. Due to such differences, Chinese English learners often make mistakes in oral or written works. Generally speaking, negative transfer from Chinese on the level of lexis can be shown as the following aspects: the use of articles, single or plural forms of nouns, verbs and tenses, the use of words, etc. For example, “bian zhi” can be translated as “to go bad”. As a negative language transfer, in the Chinese language, people will say “bad eggs (fruit, cheese, milk, tooth, etc.)”. But in fact, in the English language, there’re many synonyms of “bad”. We should describe the above things suitably as “addled eggs”, “spoiled fruit”, “rotten cheese”, “sour milk”, “decayed tooth”, etc.
3.1.1 Articles
(1) There is public library in every town in Britain.*¶ |
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There is a public library in every town in Britain. |
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(2) I have a good news to tell you.* |
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I have a piece of good news to tell you. |
◆Analyze: There being no such words in Chinese that can be equal to articles in English, Chinese English learners often neglect the use of Articles in English. But after they’ve learnt some English, sometimes they are confused by the use of Articles in English.
3.1.2 Single or plural forms of Nouns
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(3) They were eager to know everything about China and asked me lots of question. * |
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They were eager to know everything about China and asked me lots of questions. |
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(4) I hope that you two could come and visit us some times soon. * |
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I hope that you two could come and visit us some time soon. |
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(5) The riches are always respected and the poors are always worth nothing at all. * |
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The rich are always respected and the poor are always worth nothing at all. |
◆Analyze: Both Chinese and English have the grammatical item about single and plural forms of Nouns. But in the Chinese language, this item is just used to describe persons. However, in the English language, this item can be used to describe both persons and objects. Also there’re regular and irregular rules about plural forms of Nouns. Because of the difference between Chinese and English, Chinese English learners sometimes will neglect the plural forms when using this grammatical item. Another reason is that in the Chinese language, one noun is considered to be countable, while in the English language, uncountable, or vice versa. And this also brings difficulty to learners in telling countable nouns from uncountable nouns. Take “yi zhang zhi” as an example. In Chinese, “zhi” is countable but in English, we should say “ a piece of paper”. Here “paper” is an uncountable noun.
3.1.3 Verbs and tenses
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(6) This medicine will good to you. * |
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This medicine will be good to you. |
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(7) Play football not only makes me grow up…. * |
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Playing football not only makes me grow up…. |
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(8) This method can helps teachers to teach better. * |
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This method can help teachers to teach better. |
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(9) I learn about you from my English teacher, Miss Fang. * |
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I learnt about you from my English teacher, Miss Fang. |
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(10) It was kind of them to meet me at the railway station and drove me to their home.* |
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It was kind of them to meet me at the railway station and drive me to their home. |
◆Analyze: In the English language, “Subject+Verb” (SV) is the core of a sentence. People put much attention on it. While in the Chinese language, subjects and verbs are not so related as that in the English language. When writing, Chinese English learners sometimes miss verbs, pay no attention to the agreement between subjects and verbs or modal verbs used together with verb forms of the third person. Another aspect is about tenses. In Chinese, people don’t describe the tenses through the verb forms. While in English, there’re quite a lot of forms to express tenses. Take the Past Tense as an example. In English, people say “ I did it ” while Chinese people say “ wo zuo guo le ”. In Chinese, people use “guo, le, etc. ” to describe things done.
3.1.4 The use of words
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(11) Whether you success or not, you should work hard. * |
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Whether you succeed or not, you should work hard. |
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(12) The dictionary spent me a lot of money. * |
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The dictionary cost me a lot of money. |
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(13) 看书 to read a book*; 注意身体 to notice your body*
微机 small machine*; 进入房间 to enter into the room*; |
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to read; to pay attention to your health; (micro)computer; to enter the room |
◆Analyze: ① In the Chinese language, we can’t tell the word or phrase whether it’s a noun, verb or adj. etc. But in the English language, from the word form, sometimes, we can see it’s a noun or verb, etc. This difference makes Chinese English learners feel it difficulty in using proper words when writing in English. ② Chinese English learners cannot tell the slight difference when using synonyms. They sometimes have to express their thoughts in Chinglish (China English) because they haven’t learnt enough English words to express their thoughts, or they will describe something in English according to Chinese grammatical rules.
3.2 Syntax level
Interference from L1 is said theoretically not so strongly felt at syntax level as in phonology, lexis and discourse. (Ellis, 1994) Metalingual awareness may inhibit transfer in the case of word order. (Odlin, 1990) Most learners may have a much more highly developed metalingual awareness of grammatical properties than of phonological, discourse or pragmatic properties. This awareness may enable learners to control their choice of linguistic form at the level of grammar to a greater extent than at the other language levels and this may inhibit transfer. However, to our thinking, negative as well as positive transfer is no less frequent, if not more, in syntax, at least with us Chinese English learners. Lack of the knowledge of English syntax, Chinese English learners often express their thoughts, depending on syntax knowledge of Chinese. So when there exist differences between Chinese syntax and English syntax, language transfer comes on the syntax level.
3.2.1 Cohesion
Halliday divides cohesion into five types: reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction and lexical cohesion. (see Liu Luoxia, 1999) On the level of syntax, I just want to discuss “reference” and “substitution”.
3.2.1.1 Reference
Reference includes personal reference and demonstrative reference.
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(14) Wash hands before have dinner. * |
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Wash your hands before you have dinner. |
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(15) He said he had cleaned the classroom by himself. This is not true. * |
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He said he had cleaned the classroom by himself. That is not true. |
◆Analyze: ① In the Chinese language, we can express one motion without a possessive pronouns, such as, “xi lian, zuo zuoye” etc. But in English, you should use pronouns. That’s the difference. ② In the English language, “that” is used to describe the things referred to before and “this” the things to be referred to.
3.2.1.2 Substitution
Substitution refers to the phenomenon that people use one word to substitute another word or other words or phrases, which includes substitution of nouns and verbs.
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(16) The population of China is larger than the population of Japan. * |
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The population of China is larger than that of Japan. |
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(17) I didn’t agree with her, and Tom didn’t agree with her either. * |
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I didn’t agree with her, nor/neither did Tom. |
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(18) ---She shouldn’t tell Dick the truth. ---But she told Dick the truth. * |
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---She shouldn’t tell Dick the truth. ---But she did. |
◆Analyze: There’re no mistakes in the above sentences in grammar. But the use of substitution can make the sentences brevity.
3.2.2 Chinglish （China English）
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(19) Our term has passed one month. * |
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One month has passed since the new term began. |
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(20) After four classes, my stomach is hungry. * |
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After four classes, I am hungry. |
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(21) You must very like it, isn’t it? * |
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You must like it very much, do you? |
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(22)①Let’s go and eat our meals.* Let’s go and eat. |
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②We’re going to sing songs at the concert.* We’re going to sing at the concert. |
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③Have you paid the money?* Have you paid yet? |
◆Analyze: ① Chinese English learners sometimes make English sentences according to the Chinese language rules, which brings us so called Chinglish. (see Examples 19-21) ② English verbs have had the meanings of their objects, which are usually omitted. But in the Chinese language, we often make people know the objects. (see Example 22)
3.3 Discourse level
What might at first sight appear to be the transferred syntax errors are actually the discourse ones, among which transfer of the topic-comment structure, is a good example. (Schachter and Rutherford, 1979 see Ellis, 1994). The topic-comment structure is a phenomenon commonly found in L2 learners’ interlanguage, irrespective of their native language backgrounds. With such learners as Chinese or Japanese, whose native language are topic-comment structure, such topic prominence is more prevalent. (Rutherford, 1983 see Ellis, 1994) It takes longer to be eradicated. A great diversity between Chinese and English is that Chinese, especially, in oral practices or on informal occasions, emphasize on parataxis, which indicate grammatical cohesion through words or the meaning of clauses, and English focuses on hypotaxis, which show grammatical and meaning cohesion through language forms.
As we see, Chinese and English belong to two different language and cultural systems and there’re abundant differences between them. Obviously, people of these two languages have different ways of thinking. According to Michael Hoey (1983), there’re three thought pattern of English discourse: Problem-solution Pattern, General-particular Pattern, and Matching Pattern. (see Lin Qiong, 2001) But the thought pattern of Chinese discourse usually focuses on “Problem-solution Pattern”. Chinese students are lack of the thought pattern---“General-particular Pattern”. We Chinese usually express our thoughts or ideas in winding or circular ways. While English discourse structures are linear. As a result, native English speakers will find lots of “rubbish” or “nonsense” in a passage or text written by Chinese English learners. We can find the character of the Chinese discourse in the following passage written by a Chinese student.
Why Is English Important to Scientists
Today English has been the most wide-used language. When a scientist draws a conclusion after a long period of study, he wants to let other people know his discovery. How should he do? If he writes the paper in his native language, only some persons understand it. If he writes in English, then more persons will know it. So other scientists may discuss it and make different opinion. It is good for the development of the science field. To other scientists, they can get news about their study. English, as a useful tool, it is helpful for the scientists to communicate the information. If every scientist knows about English, he can see other’s opinion without difficult. So English is important to scientists.
4. Conclusion and suggestions
As a Chinese English learner, he wants to write English sentences that fit the rules of the English language. But because of the existing distance between his cognitive ability and his ability of using the English language, he cannot express his thoughts in English with what he’s learned. To some extent, he thinks in Chinese ways though a lot of English words or phrases are running in his mind. As a result, he makes Chinglish sentences while using English words.
As is discussed above, we can find several reasons to explain why language transfer exists in Chinese learners’ English learning. One is that they just know a little about the culture of the English language. Also they know little about the differences between Chinese and English. Another reason is that their vocabulary is quite limited. And sometimes they cannot express their thoughts with so limited a vocabulary.
To avoid the interference of the Chinese language and improve students’ writing abilities, we teachers should apply useful and effective ways in our English teaching, focusing not only on the correctness of the English language forms but on the accuracy of the use of the English language. We should put emphasis on vocabulary teaching, discourse teaching and the training of students’ competence of using language. Here’re some suggested ways to improve students’ writing abilities:
●Extensive reading goes along with intensive reading. Train students to learn to think in English and avoid word-to-word translation.
●Try to use English-English dictionary, for there’re detailed explanations about the meanings of words and their usage in English.
●Get students to pay special attention to the background knowledge of the cultures of the English-speaking countries.
●Create the situations of practising English, such as listening to English radio programs, watching English TV programs, serving on the Web, or taking part in the English corner or other activities in English.
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